Skinner, maslow and rogers
According to Skinner, what is the view of humanity based on?
Principles of evolutionism
Personal opinions
Religious beliefs
Cultural norms
Scientific experiments
What is the difference between respondent behavior and operant behavior?
Respondent behavior is produced spontaneously by the organism, while operant behavior is preceded and caused by a stimulus.
Respondent behavior is influenced by positive reinforcement, while operant behavior is influenced by negative reinforcement.
Respondent behavior is preceded and caused by a stimulus, while operant behavior is produced spontaneously by the organism.
Respondent behavior is learned through classical conditioning, while operant behavior is learned through operant conditioning.
Respondent behavior is controlled by the environment, while operant behavior is controlled by internal factors.
What is the main focus of Skinner's theory?
Investigating the influence of cultural factors on behavior
Analyzing the impact of emotions on decision-making
Studying the laws that govern behavior
Understanding the internal aspects of personality
Exploring the role of genetics in development
What is the definition of operant conditioning?
Behaviour that is influenced by positive reinforcement
Behaviour that is controlled by internal factors
Behaviour that is controlled by the stimuli that succeed it
Behaviour that is learned through classical conditioning
Behaviour that is controlled by the stimuli that precede it
What is the purpose of reinforcement in Skinner's theory?
To shape complex and unusual behavior
To control the internal aspects of personality
To establish a connection between a familiar response and a new stimulus
To increase the probability that a behavior will be repeated
To decrease the probability that a behavior will be repeated
What is the difference between positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement?
Positive reinforcement involves administering an unpleasant stimulus, while negative reinforcement involves removing a pleasant stimulus.
Positive reinforcement involves removing an unpleasant stimulus, while negative reinforcement involves administering a pleasant stimulus.
Positive reinforcement involves increasing the probability of a behavior, while negative reinforcement involves decreasing the probability of a behavior.
Positive reinforcement involves removing a pleasant stimulus, while negative reinforcement involves administering an unpleasant stimulus.
Positive reinforcement involves administering a pleasant stimulus, while negative reinforcement involves removing an unpleasant stimulus.
What is the aim of punishment in Skinner's theory?
To control the internal aspects of personality
To decrease behaviour
To shape complex behaviour
To establish a connection between a familiar response and a new stimulus
To increase behaviour
What is extinction in Skinner's theory?
When a specific type of behaviour is shaped through operant conditioning
When a specific type of behaviour is learned through classical conditioning
When a specific type of behaviour is influenced by negative reinforcement
When a specific type of behaviour increases and becomes more frequent because of positive reinforcement
When a specific type of behaviour decreases and eventually disappears because stimulation is withheld
What are primary reinforcers?
Stimuli that are only effective in classical conditioning
Stimuli that have acquired reinforcement value through association with secondary reinforcers
Anything of biological value to the organism, such as food and water
Stimuli that are only effective in operant conditioning
Stimuli that have no value to the organism
What are the two types of schedules of reinforcement?
Positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement
Primary reinforcement and secondary reinforcement
Continuous reinforcement and intermittent reinforcement
Fixed reinforcement and variable reinforcement
Classical conditioning and operant conditioning
According to Skinner, what is the view of humanity?
Humans have more complex behaviour than animals
Humans are superior to animals in every way
Animals are superior to humans in every way
There is no essential difference between human and animal behaviour
Human behavior is completely different from animal behaviour
What is the difference between respondent behaviour and operant behaviour?
Respondent behavior is produced spontaneously by the organism, while operant behavior is preceded and caused by a stimulus
Respondent behavior is a learned behavior, while operant behavior is an innate behaviour
Respondent behaviour is controlled by the stimuli that succeed it, while operant behaviour is controlled by the stimuli that precede it
Respondent behavior is preceded and caused by a stimulus, while operant behavior is produced spontaneously by the organism
Respondent behaviour is influenced by the environment, while operant behaviour is not influenced by the environment
What is the definition of operant conditioning?
Behaviour that is determined by genetic factors
Behaviour that is controlled by the stimuli that precede it
Behaviour that is spontaneous and not influenced by any external factors
Behaviour that is controlled by the stimuli that succeed it
Behaviour that is influenced by the environment
What is positive reinforcement?
No stimulus is given after the behaviour has been performed
A negative (unpleasant) stimulus is removed after the behaviour has been performed and the likelihood of that behaviour being repeated in the future increases
A positive (pleasant) stimulus is administered after the behaviour has been performed and the likelihood of that behaviour being repeated in the future increases
A positive (pleasant) stimulus is removed after the behavior has been performed and the likelihood of that behaviour being repeated in the future increases
A negative (unpleasant) stimulus is administered after the behavior has been performed and the likelihood of that behavior being repeated in the future increases
What is punishment?
No stimulus is given after the behaviour
Aims at increasing behavior by administering a pleasant stimulus after the behaviour
Aims at increasing behaviour by removing an unpleasant stimulus after the behaviour
Aims at decreasing behavior by removing a pleasant stimulus after the behaviour
Aims at decreasing behavior by administering an aversive (unpleasant) stimulus after the behaviour
What is the difference between primary reinforcer and secondary reinforcer?
Primary reinforcer is a stimulus that has acquired reinforcement value through association with secondary reinforcers, while secondary reinforcer is anything of biological value to the organism
Primary reinforcer is a stimulus that is presented at regular intervals, while secondary reinforcer is a stimulus that is presented at irregular intervals
Primary reinforcer is a stimulus that is administered after the behavior has been performed, while secondary reinforcer is a stimulus that is removed after the behavior has been performed
Primary reinforcer is a stimulus that is given after a fixed number of correct responses, while secondary reinforcer is a stimulus that is given after an irregular number of correct responses
Primary reinforcer is anything of biological value to the organism, while secondary reinforcer is a stimulus that has acquired reinforcement value through association with primary reinforcers
What is continuous reinforcement?
No reinforcer is given
Reinforcer is given after every correct response
Reinforcer is given at regular intervals
Reinforcer is given at irregular intervals
Reinforcer is given after a fixed number of correct responses
What is shaping in operant conditioning?
Teaching simple behavior by removing an unpleasant stimulus after it is performed
Teaching complex behavior by providing continuous reinforcement
Teaching complex behavior by providing punishment for incorrect responses
Teaching simple behavior by repeating it multiple times until it becomes a habit
Teaching complex behavior by dividing it into small steps and reinforcing each step until the complete behavior is learned
According to Skinner, how does optimal development occur?
By having a strong internal motivation
By having a high level of intelligence
By following a predetermined genetic blueprint
By learning to behave in a way that one receives positive primary and secondary reinforcers and avoids aversive reinforcers
By having a supportive social environment
According to Skinner, how does he view psychopathology?
As a mental disturbance caused by internal conflicts and guilt feelings
As undesirable behavior that can be explained and treated through the principles of operant conditioning
As a normal variation of human behavior
As a result of unconscious desires and childhood experiences
As a result of genetic factors and maturation
According to the text, what is the difference between healthy and maladapted or neurotic people?
Maladapted people have learnt more 'effective' behaviors
Neurotic people have fewer positive reinforcements
Healthy people have learnt more 'effective' behaviors
Healthy people have fewer positive reinforcements
Maladapted people have fewer positive reinforcements
What may result in depression according to the text?
When an important source of positive reinforcement disappears
When an important source of negative reinforcement disappears
When a loved one is sick
When a loved one dies
When an important source of positive reinforcement appears
What is the source of the bizarre behaviour often exhibited during psychoses?
The patient learns the behaviour because his or her environment does not reinforce it
The patient learns the behavior because his or her environment reinforces it
The patient learns the behaviour because of genetics
The patient learns the behavior because of therapy
The patient learns the behavior because of medication
Which of the following is NOT mentioned as a possible reason for maladapted or neurotic behavior?
Lack of positive reinforcement
Learning behaviors that do not lead to positive reinforcements
Genetics
Lack of effective behaviours
Lack of effective behaviors
According to Carl Rogers, what are the three fundamental assumptions of his personality theory?
The individual is controlled by external factors
The individual has constructive potential
The individual is incapable of change
The individual is inherently evil
According to Abraham Maslow, what is the most important theme in his work?
Emphasis on human potential
Emphasis on luck and chance
Emphasis on external factors
Emphasis on dysfunction and pathology
What does Maslow call individuals who have succeeded in fulfilling their potential?
Self-actualisers
Self-deceivers
Self-saboteurs
Self-doubters
According to Maslow, what forms the basis of his theory?
External factors
Pathology
Healthy functioning
Luck
What role does the environment play in fulfilling a person's basic needs, according to Maslow?
Minor role
No role
Significant role
Dominant role
How does Maslow view individuals?
Essentially good and worthy
Essentially unpredictable
Essentially neutral
Essentially bad and unworthy
What is the motive that underlies all behaviour, according to Maslow?
Tendency towards self-destruction
Tendency towards conformity
Tendency towards laziness
Tendency towards self-actualisation
What is the first level of the hierarchy of basic needs?
Physiological needs
Needs for self-esteem
Safety needs
Needs for affiliation, love, and belonging
What are deficiency motives, according to Maslow?
Motives related to social needs
Motives related to basic survival needs
Motives related to growth and self-actualisation
Motives related to self-esteem
What are growth motives, according to Maslow?
Motives related to affiliation and love needs
Motives related to safety needs
Motives related to physiological needs
Motives related to self-actualisation and higher level needs
What is the term used to describe things that prevent a person from self-actualization?
Self-acceptance
Task involvement
Ungratified needs
Spontaneity
What is the fear of success called?
Inferiority complex
Jonah complex
Superiority complex
Fear of failure
What is the term used to describe the lack of integration within an individual?
Seemingly opposing needs
Fear of success
Cultural stereotype
Lack of self-acceptance
What is the ideal level of functioning that all people should strive for?
Spontaneity
Self-acceptance
Self-actualization
Task involvement
What is the first B-value of an optimal self-actualizing individual according to Maslow?
Self-acceptance
Task involvement
Spontaneity
Accurate observation of reality
What is the absence of superficiality and pretence called?
Task involvement
Accurate observation of reality
Simplicity and naturalness
Self-acceptance
What is the need for privacy called?
Accurate observation of reality
Self-acceptance
Task involvement
Exclusiveness
What is the ability to function relatively independently from the physical and social environment called?
Autonomy
Accurate observation of reality
Task involvement
Self-acceptance
What is the consistent renewal of appreciation called?
Accurate observation of reality
Task involvement
Peak experience
Self-acceptance
What is the concern for humankind despite becoming irritated by the deficiencies of ordinary people called?
Self-acceptance
Accurate observation of reality
Social feeling
Task involvement
According to Carl Rogers, what are the three central assumptions of the humanistic-phenomenological school of thought?
The individual has destructive potential
The individual is passive in realizing potential
The individual's nature is determined by external factors
The individual is incapable of change
The individual has constructive potential
What is the role of the environment in Carl Rogers' self-concept theory?
The environment is irrelevant to the individual's development
The environment is solely responsible for the individual's behavior
The environment determines the individual's self-concept
The environment plays a facilitating or inhibiting role
The environment has no impact on the individual's self-concept
What is the self-concept according to Carl Rogers?
The physical and psychological functions of an individual
The perception of others about an individual
The picture individuals have of themselves
The ideal self an individual aspires to be
The value others attach to an individual
What is the actualising tendency in Carl Rogers' theory?
The inherent tendency of organisms to maintain and expand themselves
The need for positive regard from others
The role of self-concept in determining behavior
The striving for progress and achievement
The congruence between self-concept and experiences
What are the two basic needs underlying and directing behavior according to Carl Rogers?
The need for power and control over others
The need for approval from others and the need for material possessions
The need for social status and recognition
The need for positive regard from others and the need for positive self-regard
The need for conformity and obedience
What is congruence in Carl Rogers' theory?
When an individual adopts the wishes and values of others
When an individual refuses to symbolize experiences contrary to their self-concept
When an individual is congruent with their ideal self
When an individual sees themselves as they actually are
When an individual is open to all experiences and can incorporate them into their self-concept
What are the three ways of dealing with experiences according to Carl Rogers?
Remember, forget, distort
Ignore, symbolize, refuse to symbolize
Embrace, avoid, suppress
Accept, reject, deny
Analyze, interpret, dismiss
According to Carl Rogers, how does the self-concept influence behavior?
Our behavior is random and unpredictable
Our behavior is influenced by our genetic makeup
Our behavior is solely determined by external factors
We behave according to our self-concept
Our behavior is determined by our unconscious desires
What are the fully functioning characteristics in Carl Rogers' theory?
Isolation, avoidance of new experiences, distrust, limited choices, lack of creativity, unreliability and destructiveness, a dull, empty life
Growing openness to experience, increasing existential lifestyle, increasing organismic trust, freedom of choice, creativity, basic reliability and constructiveness, a rich, full life
Conformity, obedience, material possessions, social status, power and control over others
Closed-mindedness, rigid lifestyle, mistrust, limited choices, lack of creativity, unreliability and destructiveness, a dull, empty life
Indifference, apathy, lack of trust, limited choices, lack of creativity, unreliability and destructiveness, a dull, empty life
What is the result of incongruence in Carl Rogers' theory?
Indifference and apathy
Excitement and motivation
Confusion and uncertainty
Tension and anxiety
Harmony and contentment
How does Carl Rogers define the structure of the personality?
The personality consists of the Organism, the Phenomenal Field, and the Self Concept
The personality consists of the Ego, the Superego, and the Id
The personality consists of the Id, the Ego, and the Superconscious
The personality consists of the Conscious, the Unconscious, and the Preconscious
What is the Self Concept according to Carl Rogers?
The individual's perception of others
The individual's perception of themselves
The individual's perception of the world
The individual's perception of their future
What is the ideal self according to Carl Rogers?
The self-concept an individual will have in the future
The self-concept an individual would most like to have
The self-concept an individual currently has
The self-concept an individual had in the past
What is the driving or motivating force behind an individual's behavior according to Carl Rogers?
The need for material possessions
The need for social approval
The actualizing tendency
The need for power and control
What is the need for positive regard according to Carl Rogers?
The need for physical attractiveness
The need for intellectual stimulation
The basic need for acceptance, approval, and love from others
The need for financial success
What is congruence versus incongruence in Carl Rogers' theory?
Congruence is when a person's experience of the world matches their actual self
Congruence is when a person's experience of the world matches their ideal self
Congruence is when there is no difference between a person's experience of the world and their view of themselves
Congruence is when a person's experience of the world matches their self-concept
How does an incongruence between needs and self-concept affect behavior?
It has no impact on behavior
It results in behavior that is completely opposite to the self-concept
It causes a complete disregard for the self-concept
It can lead to behavior that satisfies denied needs without conflicting with the self-concept
What is unconditional positive regard?
Acceptance of an individual for who they are without any conditions
Indifference towards an individual's needs and feelings
Approval based on specific conditions and requirements
Complete rejection of an individual's self-concept
How does conditional positive regard impact the development of the self-concept?
It has no effect on the development of the self-concept
It leads to the incorporation of conditions of worth into the self-concept
It promotes unconditional acceptance of the self-concept
It encourages the exploration of new experiences and perspectives
What does Rogers consider as optimal development?
A person who denies or distorts their experiences
A fully functioning person who is aware of their experiences and realizes their full potential
A person who conforms to societal norms and practices
A person who is solely focused on fulfilling external expectations
What are the characteristics of a fully functioning person according to Rogers?
Avoidance of experiences, routine lifestyle, self-doubt, limited choices, conformity
Openness to experience, existential lifestyle, organismic trust, freedom of choice, creativity
Resistance to new experiences, rigid lifestyle, self-doubt, limited choices, conformity
Indifference to experiences, unpredictable lifestyle, lack of trust, limited choices, conformity
According to Rogers, what is the first condition necessary for growth and development?
Self-actualization
Unconditional positive regard
Congruence
Empathy
What does Rogers mean by 'the good life'?
A life filled with material possessions
A life of constant pleasure and excitement
A rich, full life that is enriching, rewarding, challenging, and meaningful
A life free from pain and suffering
What is the primary trigger for an individual's defensive/distorted behavior, according to Rogers?
Unmet needs
Lack of empathy
A threat to the self-concept and the accompanying anxiety
External circumstances
What is the purpose of defense mechanisms, according to Rogers?
To distort reality
To avoid anxiety
To protect the self-concept against incongruent experiences
To maintain self-actualization
What is an example of the defense mechanism of distortion?
Repressing unpleasant experiences
Incongruent experiences are distorted to fit the individual's self-concept
Reacting aggressively to incongruent experiences
Ignoring experiences that are not congruent with the self-concept
What is the emotional response that occurs when the individual's self-concept is threatened?
Anxiety
Anger
Sadness
Happiness
What is the term for the process whereby experiences which are not congruent with the individual's self-concept are simply ignored and excluded from consciousness?
Denial
Distortion
Projection
Repression
According to Rogers, what is the term for a person who is always on the defense and cannot be open to all experiences in life?
Incongruent person
Self-actualized person
Empathetic person
Congruent person
How does Rogers define congruence?
The process of distorting incongruent experiences to fit one's self-concept
The state of alignment between one's self-concept and their actual experiences
The emotional response that occurs when the self-concept is threatened
The ability to control aggressive needs and live harmoniously with oneself and others
What is an example of the defense mechanism of denial?
Experiences that are not congruent with the self-concept are ignored and excluded from consciousness
Distorting incongruent experiences to fit the self-concept
Repressing traumatic experiences
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