TOEFL Experts Reading Practice 42
Urban decay is the process by which established cities, or parts of them, atrophy under the weight of any of several possible societal changes, falling into a state of dilapidation. Perhaps the most common reason for this process to begin is the loss of jobs due to a company closing or moving to another location. For example, if a manufacturer in a particular city experiences financial hardship and closes down, thousands of jobs could be lost. People that work at the factory would no longer commute to it; small businesses such as restaurants and shopping centers near the factory may suffer a decline in business and close, and so on. Soon, many residences and businesses near the factory may be abandoned, triggering an exodus from that neighborhood to other locations where the economy is more vibrant. This further depletes the economic activity in that area, with the ultimate result being that large zones of the city now exhibit urban blight, or the ugly, neglected landscape of abandoned buildings that can attract gangs or criminals. These factors can be prohibitive for new residents and businesses to consider re-entering the area. Additionally, this process depletes the city of tax revenue, which can lead to a cut in services provided by the city, further incentivizing remaining residents to leave.
Other factors may be the primary cause of urban decay. One such phenomenon in the United States is “white flight,” which began shortly after World War II. White flightrefers to the mass migration of European Americans away from urban centers to more homogeneous, sometimes newer suburban or exurban communities. This migration was facilitated by the development of the Interstate Highway System, which was funded by the Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956. The highway system made commuting longer distances to employment within urban centers much more practical. At the same time, the Second Great Migration, which describes a wave of over 5 million African Americans from Southern states migrating to urban centers in the North, Midwest, and Western United States, contributed to population pressures in urban centers. This likely accelerated the trend of white flight.
Another factor arguably contributing to urban decay is rent control, wherein tenants are guaranteed a relatively affordable price for renting apartments within a city. Rent control can lead to an imbalance between the supply and demand for housing units. By keeping rents artificially low, the construction of new housing units is discouraged, and property owners may be forced to reduce expenditures on maintenance of existing homes. This can contribute to the deterioration of buildings within a neighborhood.
How can the process of urban decay be prevented or reversed? There are several potential mechanisms. One is gentrification, which is effectively the process of urban decay in reverse. With gentrification, wealthier outsiders become attracted to an urban area and move into it. This attracts investment and increases property values; new, lucrative businesses may emerge, and property owners have an incentive to invest in improvements. Tax revenues increase as the new residents with higher income populate the neighborhood. However, gentrification has its drawbacks. Pricing pressures created by the influx of new residents and businesses may render current residents unable to afford the neighborhood; existing businesses may experience hardship in the face of increased competition from new businesses. This displacement may create conflict between the “old guard” and the new residents of the neighborhood.
Another common mechanism for urban renewal is government-sponsored redevelopment projects. Large sections of a city may be acquired by the government, with existing structures refurbished or, more likely, demolished and replaced with new construction. This may include the development of commercial buildings, residential buildings, sporting venues, parks, bridges, or highways.
Many urban renewal projects have failed due to unintended consequences. For example, a highway or bridge construction project may leave an entire section of the city divided in half. Residents displaced by the project may relocate to another neighborhood entirely, further exacerbating the population decline that the project was intended to reverse. Traffic patterns may change, resulting in new opportunities for some businesses while severely impairing businesses that may now be bypassed because of the change in traffic flow. These kinds of possible consequences subject many urban renewal projects to scrutiny by (and political pressure from) residents, existing business owners, and advocacy groups.
Urban decay is the process by which established cities, or parts of them, atrophy under the weight of any of several possible societal changes, falling into a state of dilapidation. Perhaps the most common reason for this process to begin is the loss of jobs due to a company closing or moving to another location. For example, if a manufacturer in a particular city experiences financial hardship and closes down, thousands of jobs could be lost. People that work at the factory would no longer commute to it; small businesses such as restaurants and shopping centers near the factory may suffer a decline in business and close, and so on. Soon, many residences and businesses near the factory may be abandoned, triggering an exodus from that neighborhood to other locations where the economy is more vibrant. This further depletes the economic activity in that area, with the ultimate result being that large zones of the city now exhibit urban blight, or the ugly, neglected landscape of abandoned buildings that can attract gangs or criminals. These factors can be prohibitive for new residents and businesses to consider re-entering the area. Additionally, this process depletes the city of tax revenue, which can lead to a cut in services provided by the city, further incentivizing remaining residents to leave.
Other factors may be the primary cause of urban decay. One such phenomenon in the United States is “white flight,” which began shortly after World War II. White flightrefers to the mass migration of European Americans away from urban centers to more homogeneous, sometimes newer suburban or exurban communities. This migration was facilitated by the development of the Interstate Highway System, which was funded by the Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956. The highway system made commuting longer distances to employment within urban centers much more practical. At the same time, the Second Great Migration, which describes a wave of over 5 million African Americans from Southern states migrating to urban centers in the North, Midwest, and Western United States, contributed to population pressures in urban centers. This likely accelerated the trend of white flight.
Another factor arguably contributing to urban decay is rent control, wherein tenants are guaranteed a relatively affordable price for renting apartments within a city. Rent control can lead to an imbalance between the supply and demand for housing units. By keeping rents artificially low, the construction of new housing units is discouraged, and property owners may be forced to reduce expenditures on maintenance of existing homes. This can contribute to the deterioration of buildings within a neighborhood.
How can the process of urban decay be prevented or reversed? There are several potential mechanisms. One is gentrification, which is effectively the process of urban decay in reverse. With gentrification, wealthier outsiders become attracted to an urban area and move into it. This attracts investment and increases property values; new, lucrative businesses may emerge, and property owners have an incentive to invest in improvements. Tax revenues increase as the new residents with higher income populate the neighborhood. However, gentrification has its drawbacks. Pricing pressures created by the influx of new residents and businesses may render current residents unable to afford the neighborhood; existing businesses may experience hardship in the face of increased competition from new businesses. This displacement may create conflict between the “old guard” and the new residents of the neighborhood.
Another common mechanism for urban renewal is government-sponsored redevelopment projects. Large sections of a city may be acquired by the government, with existing structures refurbished or, more likely, demolished and replaced with new construction. This may include the development of commercial buildings, residential buildings, sporting venues, parks, bridges, or highways.
Many urban renewal projects have failed due to unintended consequences. For example, a highway or bridge construction project may leave an entire section of the city divided in half. Residents displaced by the project may relocate to another neighborhood entirely, further exacerbating the population decline that the project was intended to reverse. Traffic patterns may change, resulting in new opportunities for some businesses while severely impairing businesses that may now be bypassed because of the change in traffic flow. These kinds of possible consequences subject many urban renewal projects to scrutiny by (and political pressure from) residents, existing business owners, and advocacy groups.
→(P3) Another factor arguably contributing to urban decay is rent control, wherein tenants are guaranteed a relatively affordable price for renting apartments within a city. Rent control can lead to an imbalance between the supply and demand for housing units. By keeping rents artificially low, the construction of new housing units is discouraged, and property owners may be forced to reduce expenditures on maintenance of existing homes. This can contribute to the deterioration of buildings within a neighborhood.
→(P3) Another factor arguably contributing to urban decay is rent control, wherein tenants are guaranteed a relatively affordable price for renting apartments within a city. Rent control can lead to an imbalance between the supply and demand for housing units. By keeping rents artificially low, the construction of new housing units is discouraged, and property owners may be forced to reduce expenditures on maintenance of existing homes. This can contribute to the deterioration of buildings within a neighborhood.
→(P3) Another factor arguably contributing to urban decay is rent control, wherein tenants are guaranteed a relatively affordable price for renting apartments within a city. Rent control can lead to an imbalance between the supply and demand for housing units. By keeping rents artificially low, the construction of new housing units is discouraged, and property owners may be forced to reduce expenditures on maintenance of existing homes. This can contribute to the deterioration of buildings within a neighborhood.
→(P6) Many urban renewal projects have failed due to unintended consequences.[C] For example, a highway or bridge construction project may leave an entire section of the city divided in half. Residents displaced by the project may relocate to another neighborhood entirely, further exacerbating the population decline that the project was intended to reverse. Traffic patterns may change, resulting in new opportunities for some businesses while severely impairing businesses that may now be bypassed because of the change in traffic flow.[D] These kinds of possible consequences subject many urban renewal projects to scrutiny by (and political pressure from) residents, existing business owners, and advocacy groups.