TOEFL Experts Reading Practice 43
The Athenian Empire
In 508 B.C. Cleisthenes, an Athenian nobleman, reformed the constitution of the city-state of Athens in modern-day Greece, establishing the first known, even if imperfect, democratic government. This outcome was the culmination of work by other politicians over the prior century, most notably the lawmaker and poet Solon, who wrote many of his poems as propaganda protesting the rise of dictatorships in several Greek city-states. Solon’s work failed to achieve democracy in his lifetime, but it influenced Cleisthenes and many others, and it helped pave the road for the original democracy in Athens, from which many democracies borrow heavily today. Still, there were many difficult lessons to be learned about how to maintain a democracy, especially as that society became increasingly powerful.
Shortly after its founding, Athenian democracy had its first true test. At the time, much of the land in neighboring Ionia was inhabited by Greeks but under Persian rule, having been conquered by the powerful Persian Empire in 540 B.C. In 498 B.C., the Ionians attempted to revolt against Persia. The revolt was quickly suppressed, and thus began the Greco–Persian Wars. After a series of Persian victories in battles
throughout Ionia, the Persian navy landed on the shores of Marathon in 490 B.C., a mere 25 miles from Athens. The Persian force was much larger than that of the Greek defenders, but it was routed in the Battle of Marathon. Some believe that democracy played a crucial role in this successful defense: free people, determined to defend their homes and way of life, had more reason to work together to develop and execute a cooperative battle strategy than did the opposing army.
The victory was hailed by the city-state of Sparta, which had a reputation as the elite military force of Greece but had failed to arrive in time for the battle. The Spartans were amazed at what the Athenians had accomplished, for it was the first time Greece had successfully repelled a Persian invasion. Persian leader Xerxes would attack again in 480 B.C., now wielding an even more massive army. The Spartans joined this fight, with King Leonidas leading the land defense at the famous Battle of Thermopylae and Themistocles leading the Athenian navy against the Persian fleet at the Straits of Artemisium. Despite incurring heavy losses, Persian forces eventually overwhelmed the Greeks at Thermopylae and Artemisium. This time the Persian army successfully reached Athens, occupying it for about a year, but Greek forces regrouped and won decisive victories at the Battles of Salamis, Mycale, and Plataea. Now able to turn to offense, the Greeks definitively forced the Persians out of Greece, once again preserving Athenian democracy.
After these successful defenses, Sparta decided to withdraw from the war. Most of the remaining Greek city-states banded together to form the Delian League. This coalition was charged with continuing the war against Persia, and with Sparta dropping out, control of the league was firmly in the hands of Athens. All league members were forced to contribute troops, materials, or money to support the league. Most citystates chose to give money; Athens used this money to build a powerful military. Athenian politicians pursued a policy of not only fighting the Persians, but also using its military might to enforce continued participation in the Delian League by member city-states and to force other city-states to join the league. This period was marked on the one hand by quickly rising prosperity for democratic Athens, but on the other hand by a rapid deterioration in the rights and autonomy of other Delian League members.
What began as a democracy, founded on the idea of equality for “all” Athenians (even if “all” was defined only as “adult male citizens”), developed into a brutal military empire that quickly developed new enemies throughout Greece. Member city-states began to revolt, and tensions mounted between Athens and the military powerhouse of Sparta, which perceived that Athens had become too powerful and corrupt. In 431 B.C., these developments led to the Peloponnesian War, which ended in the defeat of Athens and its submission to Spartan rule. Athenian democracy was suspended, and although it eventually regrouped, the Second Athenian Empire repeated many of the same mistakes and was dismantled in 355 B.C. Greece was
once again an assortment of independent city-states that soon vanished for good as a unified entity when Alexander the Great led Macedonia to take over the region.
The Athenian Empire
In 508 B.C. Cleisthenes, an Athenian nobleman, reformed the constitution of the city-state of Athens in modern-day Greece, establishing the first known, even if imperfect, democratic government. This outcome was the culmination of work by other politicians over the prior century, most notably the lawmaker and poet Solon, who wrote many of his poems as propaganda protesting the rise of dictatorships in several Greek city-states. Solon’s work failed to achieve democracy in his lifetime, but it influenced Cleisthenes and many others, and it helped pave the road for the original democracy in Athens, from which many democracies borrow heavily today. Still, there were many difficult lessons to be learned about how to maintain a democracy, especially as that society became increasingly powerful.
Shortly after its founding, Athenian democracy had its first true test. At the time, much of the land in neighboring Ionia was inhabited by Greeks but under Persian rule, having been conquered by the powerful Persian Empire in 540 B.C. In 498 B.C., the Ionians attempted to revolt against Persia. The revolt was quickly suppressed, and thus began the Greco–Persian Wars. After a series of Persian victories in battles
throughout Ionia, the Persian navy landed on the shores of Marathon in 490 B.C., a mere 25 miles from Athens. The Persian force was much larger than that of the Greek defenders, but it was routed in the Battle of Marathon. Some believe that democracy played a crucial role in this successful defense: free people, determined to defend their homes and way of life, had more reason to work together to develop and execute a cooperative battle strategy than did the opposing army.
The victory was hailed by the city-state of Sparta, which had a reputation as the elite military force of Greece but had failed to arrive in time for the battle. The Spartans were amazed at what the Athenians had accomplished, for it was the first time Greece had successfully repelled a Persian invasion. Persian leader Xerxes would attack again in 480 B.C., now wielding an even more massive army. The Spartans joined this fight, with King Leonidas leading the land defense at the famous Battle of Thermopylae and Themistocles leading the Athenian navy against the Persian fleet at the Straits of Artemisium. Despite incurring heavy losses, Persian forces eventually overwhelmed the Greeks at Thermopylae and Artemisium. This time the Persian army successfully reached Athens, occupying it for about a year, but Greek forces regrouped and won decisive victories at the Battles of Salamis, Mycale, and Plataea. Now able to turn to offense, the Greeks definitively forced the Persians out of Greece, once again preserving Athenian democracy.
After these successful defenses, Sparta decided to withdraw from the war. Most of the remaining Greek city-states banded together to form the Delian League. This coalition was charged with continuing the war against Persia, and with Sparta dropping out, control of the league was firmly in the hands of Athens. All league members were forced to contribute troops, materials, or money to support the league. Most citystates chose to give money; Athens used this money to build a powerful military. Athenian politicians pursued a policy of not only fighting the Persians, but also using its military might to enforce continued participation in the Delian League by member city-states and to force other city-states to join the league. This period was marked on the one hand by quickly rising prosperity for democratic Athens, but on the other hand by a rapid deterioration in the rights and autonomy of other Delian League members.
What began as a democracy, founded on the idea of equality for “all” Athenians (even if “all” was defined only as “adult male citizens”), developed into a brutal military empire that quickly developed new enemies throughout Greece. Member city-states began to revolt, and tensions mounted between Athens and the military powerhouse of Sparta, which perceived that Athens had become too powerful and corrupt. In 431 B.C., these developments led to the Peloponnesian War, which ended in the defeat of Athens and its submission to Spartan rule. Athenian democracy was suspended, and although it eventually regrouped, the Second Athenian Empire repeated many of the same mistakes and was dismantled in 355 B.C. Greece was
once again an assortment of independent city-states that soon vanished for good as a unified entity when Alexander the Great led Macedonia to take over the region.
throughout Ionia, the Persian navy landed on the shores of Marathon in 490 B.C., a mere 25 miles from Athens. The Persian force was much larger than that of the Greek defenders, but it was routed in the Battle of Marathon. Some believe that democracy played a crucial role in this successful defense: free people, determined to defend their homes and way of life, had more reason to work together to develop and execute a cooperative battle strategy than did the opposing army.
throughout Ionia, the Persian navy landed on the shores of Marathon in 490 B.C., a mere 25 miles from Athens. The Persian force was much larger than that of the Greek defenders, but it was routed in the Battle of Marathon. Some believe that democracy played a crucial role in this successful defense: free people, determined to defend their homes and way of life, had more reason to work together to develop and execute a cooperative battle strategy than did the opposing army.
- The Golden Ratio, a mathematical relationship that has been known for centuries, has numerous applications and associated examples in the fields of mathematics, architecture, art, and nature.