TOEFL Experts Reading Practice 7
Reading Section
This section measures your ability to understand academic passages in English. You can skip questions and go back to them later as long as there is time remaining.
Now begin the Reading section.
Reading Section
This section measures your ability to understand academic passages in English. You can skip questions and go back to them later as long as there is time remaining.
Now begin the Reading section.
Cupule Rock Art
Parietal art is the archaeological term for human-made artwork—etchings, carvings, paintings, and drawings—typically done on cave walls or large blocks of stone. Also called “cave art” or “rock art,” parietal art is found in many culturally diverse regions of the world and has been produced in many contexts throughout human history. The oldest known rock art dates from the Upper Paleolithic period and has been found in Europe, Australia, Asia, and Africa. The purpose of these remains of the Paleolithic period (as well as many other periods of prehistoric art) is not known. In the mid-1900s, however, researchers began to theorize that rock art was used as more than simple decoration. Archaeologists currently studying these artworks believe it likely that this art had religious and ritualistic significance.
When discussing rock art, researchers delineate individual pieces into one of three forms: 1) petroglyphs, which are carved into the rock surface; 2) pictographs, which are painted onto the surface; and 3) earth figures, formed on the ground. Petroglyphs are considered the earliest known parietal art, and the most prolific petroglyphs are thought to be cup stones, also known as “cupules.” Cupules have been found on every continent except Antarctica and were produced during all three eras of the Stone Age (Paleolithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic). In fact, many tribal cultures continue to create cupules to this day.
The actual term “cupule” was introduced in the early 1990s by Australian archaeologist Robert G. Bednarik. According to Bednarik and his colleagues, a cupule is a hemispherical1 petroglyph created by hammering the rock surface with another hard object, in a process called percussion. In order to be defined as a cupule, the indentation in the rock must be man-made, intentional, percussion-produced, and primarily symbolic or non-utilitarian in nature, although there may be secondary utilitarian fun
Cupules are typically found in large groups and often number in the hundreds (or even thousands) in a single location. A recent series of research experiments conducted by the Indian archaeologist Giriraj Kumar has sought to understand the difficulty with which these large groupings of cupules were created. Over the course of five experiments, Kumar’s team attempted to replicate cupules found at Daraki-Chattan, India. For each replicated cupule, the team collected a variety of data, such as specific descriptions of the hammer-stones used, the time needed to create the cupule, and the number of percussion strikes required. The research found that the pounding of a single cupule out of hard rock required a colossal expenditure of energy: some cupules required upwards of 20,000 blows, an effort that would take several hours to complete. Given that the Daraki-Chattan site includes over 500 cupules, creating such large formations would have required a great deal of time and dedication. Since cupules were chiefly symbolic, not practical, in nature, the immensity of the effort required to create them indicates the value these prehistoric cultures attached to certain non-utilitarian activities.
Experts have not yet agreed on a unified explanation of the cultural or artistic meaning of cupules. However, a theory by archaeologist Charles P. Mountford in the early 1940s proposed that the creation of cupules might be associated with fertility rites. To investigate this, Mountford studied an Aboriginal tribe who continued to create cupules. Mountford witnessed the tribe hammering cupules as part of a fertility ritual for the pink cockatoo. The Aborigines pounded the cupules into a rock thought to contain the life essence of this bird. As the cupules were pounded out, the mineral dust that arose was thought to increase the female cockatoo’s production of eggs, which were a valuable food source for the Aborigines.
The earliest known examples of cupule art, dating back to between 290,000 and 700,000 B.C., were found in central India. It can be difficult for archaeologists to estimate the exact date of creation for many cupules, however, because some appear to have been reworked by later artists, sometimes thousands of years later. For instance, one cupule at Moda Bhata, India, created around 7,000 B.C., was re-pounded around A.D. 200. Some researchers were initially surprised that all of the oldest known cupules appear on highly weatherproof and extremely hard rock, given the great physical effort clearly needed to create such formations. These same researchers questioned why easier, softer rocks were not chosen. However, it is entirely possible that this pattern is the result of survivorship bias: cupules formed on hard and more weatherproof rock are more likely to survive to the present day. It is probable that archaeologists may one day discover even older cupules in weather-protected soft rock.
hemispherical1: relating to one half of a sphere (e.g., the top half of the Earth is known as the Northern Hemisphere)
Cupule Rock Art
Parietal art is the archaeological term for human-made artwork—etchings, carvings, paintings, and drawings—typically done on cave walls or large blocks of stone. Also called “cave art” or “rock art,” parietal art is found in many culturally diverse regions of the world and has been produced in many contexts throughout human history. The oldest known rock art dates from the Upper Paleolithic period and has been found in Europe, Australia, Asia, and Africa. The purpose of these remains of the Paleolithic period (as well as many other periods of prehistoric art) is not known. In the mid-1900s, however, researchers began to theorize that rock art was used as more than simple decoration. Archaeologists currently studying these artworks believe it likely that this art had religious and ritualistic significance.
When discussing rock art, researchers delineate individual pieces into one of three forms: 1) petroglyphs, which are carved into the rock surface; 2) pictographs, which are painted onto the surface; and 3) earth figures, formed on the ground. Petroglyphs are considered the earliest known parietal art, and the most prolific petroglyphs are thought to be cup stones, also known as “cupules.” Cupules have been found on every continent except Antarctica and were produced during all three eras of the Stone Age (Paleolithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic). In fact, many tribal cultures continue to create cupules to this day.
The actual term “cupule” was introduced in the early 1990s by Australian archaeologist Robert G. Bednarik. According to Bednarik and his colleagues, a cupule is a hemispherical1 petroglyph created by hammering the rock surface with another hard object, in a process called percussion. In order to be defined as a cupule, the indentation in the rock must be man-made, intentional, percussion-produced, and primarily symbolic or non-utilitarian in nature, although there may be secondary utilitarian fun
Cupules are typically found in large groups and often number in the hundreds (or even thousands) in a single location. A recent series of research experiments conducted by the Indian archaeologist Giriraj Kumar has sought to understand the difficulty with which these large groupings of cupules were created. Over the course of five experiments, Kumar’s team attempted to replicate cupules found at Daraki-Chattan, India. For each replicated cupule, the team collected a variety of data, such as specific descriptions of the hammer-stones used, the time needed to create the cupule, and the number of percussion strikes required. The research found that the pounding of a single cupule out of hard rock required a colossal expenditure of energy: some cupules required upwards of 20,000 blows, an effort that would take several hours to complete. Given that the Daraki-Chattan site includes over 500 cupules, creating such large formations would have required a great deal of time and dedication. Since cupules were chiefly symbolic, not practical, in nature, the immensity of the effort required to create them indicates the value these prehistoric cultures attached to certain non-utilitarian activities.
Experts have not yet agreed on a unified explanation of the cultural or artistic meaning of cupules. However, a theory by archaeologist Charles P. Mountford in the early 1940s proposed that the creation of cupules might be associated with fertility rites. To investigate this, Mountford studied an Aboriginal tribe who continued to create cupules. Mountford witnessed the tribe hammering cupules as part of a fertility ritual for the pink cockatoo. The Aborigines pounded the cupules into a rock thought to contain the life essence of this bird. As the cupules were pounded out, the mineral dust that arose was thought to increase the female cockatoo’s production of eggs, which were a valuable food source for the Aborigines.
The earliest known examples of cupule art, dating back to between 290,000 and 700,000 B.C., were found in central India. It can be difficult for archaeologists to estimate the exact date of creation for many cupules, however, because some appear to have been reworked by later artists, sometimes thousands of years later. For instance, one cupule at Moda Bhata, India, created around 7,000 B.C., was re-pounded around A.D. 200. Some researchers were initially surprised that all of the oldest known cupules appear on highly weatherproof and extremely hard rock, given the great physical effort clearly needed to create such formations. These same researchers questioned why easier, softer rocks were not chosen. However, it is entirely possible that this pattern is the result of survivorship bias: cupules formed on hard and more weatherproof rock are more likely to survive to the present day. It is probable that archaeologists may one day discover even older cupules in weather-protected soft rock.
hemispherical1: relating to one half of a sphere (e.g., the top half of the Earth is known as the Northern Hemisphere)
→(P1) Parietal art is the archaeological term for human-made artwork—etchings, carvings, paintings, and drawings—typically done on cave walls or large blocks of stone. Also called “cave art” or “rock art,” parietal art is found in many culturally diverse regions of the world and has been produced in many contexts throughout human history. The oldest known rock art dates from the Upper Paleolithic period and has been found in Europe, Australia, Asia, and Africa. The purpose of these remains of the Paleolithic period (as well as many other periods of prehistoric art) is not known. In the mid-1900s, however, researchers began to theorize that rock art was used as more than simple decoration. Archaeologists currently studying these artworks believe it likely that this art had religious and ritualistic significance.
Q: According to paragraph 1, recent archaeologists believe that rock art was
Used primarily for decorative purposes
Found only in areas where the culture has remained constant over long periods of time
Probably an important aspect of a culture’s religion or rituals
More likely to be an etching or carving than a painting or drawing
→(P2) When discussing rock art, researchers delineate individual pieces into one of three forms: 1) petroglyphs, which are carved into the rock surface; 2) pictographs, which are painted onto the surface; and 3) earth figures, formed on the ground. Petroglyphs are considered the earliest known parietal art, and the most prolific petroglyphs are thought to be cup stones, also known as “cupules.” Cupules have been found on every continent except Antarctica and were produced during all three eras of the Stone Age (Paleolithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic). In fact, many tribal cultures continue to create cupules to this day.
Q: In paragraph 2, why does the author mention the three eras of the Stone Age?
To support the claim that cupules are the most prolific petroglyphs
To argue that cupules are a modern form of parietal art
To show that the creation of cupules occured only during a very short time in history
To suggest further research into the reason prehistoric cultures created cupules
→(P2) When discussing rock art, researchers delineate individual pieces into one of three forms: 1) petroglyphs, which are carved into the rock surface; 2) pictographs, which are painted onto the surface; and 3) earth figures, formed on the ground. Petroglyphs are considered the earliest known parietal art, and the most prolific petroglyphs are thought to be cup stones, also known as “cupules.” Cupules have been found on every continent except Antarctica and were produced during all three eras of the Stone Age (Paleolithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic). In fact, many tribal cultures continue to create cupules to this day.
Q: The word “prolific” in paragraph 2 is closest in meaning to
Valuable
Abnormal
Abundant
Excessive
→(P2) When discussing rock art, researchers delineate individual pieces into one of three forms: 1) petroglyphs, which are carved into the rock surface; 2) pictographs, which are painted onto the surface; and 3) earth figures, formed on the ground. Petroglyphs are considered the earliest known parietal art, and the most prolific petroglyphs are thought to be cup stones, also known as “cupules.” Cupules have been found on every continent except Antarctica and were produced during all three eras of the Stone Age (Paleolithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic). In fact, many tribal cultures continue to create cupules to this day.
Q: According to paragraph 2, the primary categorization of rock art is influenced by
The continent on which the art was produced
Whether the art is a cup stone or other type of petroglyph
The era of the Stone Age that the art dates from
The surface used and the process by which the art was created
→(P3) The actual term “cupule” was introduced in the early 1990s by Australian archaeologist Robert G. Bednarik. According to Bednarik and his colleagues, a cupule is a hemispherical1 petroglyph created by hammering the rock surface with another hard object, in a process called percussion. In order to be defined as a cupule, the indentation in the rock must be man-made, intentional, percussion-produced, and primarily symbolic or non-utilitarian in nature, although there may be secondary utilitarian fun
Q: Each of the following corresponds to a requirement in the definition of cupules by Bednarik and his colleagues EXCEPT:
If created accidentally, an indentation is not considered a cupule.
The half-sphere indentation must have been created by hammering.
To be classified as a cupule, the rock art cannot have any useful fun
Cupules cannot be created by non-human forces such as erosion.
→(P4) Cupules are typically found in large groups and often number in the hundreds (or even thousands) in a single location. A recent series of research experiments conducted by the Indian archaeologist Giriraj Kumar has sought to understand the difficulty with which these large groupings of cupules were created. Over the course of five experiments, Kumar’s team attempted to replicate cupules found at Daraki-Chattan, India. For each replicated cupule, the team collected a variety of data, such as specific descriptions of the hammer-stones used, the time needed to create the cupule, and the number of percussion strikes required. The research found that the pounding of a single cupule out of hard rock required a colossal expenditure of energy: some cupules required upwards of 20,000 blows, an effort that would take several hours to complete. Given that the Daraki-Chattan site includes over 500 cupules, creating such large formations would have required a great deal of time and dedication. Since cupules were chiefly symbolic, not practical, in nature, the immensity of the effort required to create them indicates the value these prehistoric cultures attached to certain non-utilitarian activities.
Q: According to paragraph 4, which of the following is thought to be true of the importance of cupules to prehistoric cultures?
The hammering of cupule formations was a critical part of most prehistoric rituals.
Cupules were an early form of symbolic communication, allowing different prehistoric communities to signal their presence in an area.
Prehistoric cultures viewed cupules as primarily artistic and thus trivial in nature.
Because they were so challenging to make, cupules signify the value of symbolic activities for prehistoric cultures.
→(P4) Cupules are typically found in large groups and often number in the hundreds (or even thousands) in a single location. A recent series of research experiments conducted by the Indian archaeologist Giriraj Kumar has sought to understand the difficulty with which these large groupings of cupules were created. Over the course of five experiments, Kumar’s team attempted to replicate cupules found at Daraki-Chattan, India. For each replicated cupule, the team collected a variety of data, such as specific descriptions of the hammer-stones used, the time needed to create the cupule, and the number of percussion strikes required. The research found that the pounding of a single cupule out of hard rock required a colossal expenditure of energy: some cupules required upwards of 20,000 blows, an effort that would take several hours to complete. Given that the Daraki-Chattan site includes over 500 cupules, creating such large formations would have required a great deal of time and dedication. Since cupules were chiefly symbolic, not practical, in nature, the immensity of the effort required to create them indicates the value these prehistoric cultures attached to certain non-utilitarian activities.
Q: The word “immensity” in the passage is closest in meaning to
Magnitude
Harshness
Insignificance
Enjoyment
→(P4) Cupules are typically found in large groups and often number in the hundreds (or even thousands) in a single location. A recent series of research experiments conducted by the Indian archaeologist Giriraj Kumar has sought to understand the difficulty with which these large groupings of cupules were created. Over the course of five experiments, Kumar’s team attempted to replicate cupules found at Daraki-Chattan, India. For each replicated cupule, the team collected a variety of data, such as specific descriptions of the hammer-stones used, the time needed to create the cupule, and the number of percussion strikes required. The research found that the pounding of a single cupule out of hard rock required a colossal expenditure of energy: some cupules required upwards of 20,000 blows, an effort that would take several hours to complete. Given that the Daraki-Chattan site includes over 500 cupules, creating such large formations would have required a great deal of time and dedication. Since cupules were chiefly symbolic, not practical, in nature, the immensity of the effort required to create them indicates the value these prehistoric cultures attached to certain non-utilitarian activities.
Q: In paragraph 4, why does the author introduce Kumar’s research?
To provide support for the importance of cupules to prehistoric cultures
To compare the various techniques used to create cupules
To demonstrate the effectiveness of researchers in replicating cupule production
To explain why cupules were useful in a significant way to prehistoric cultures
→(P5) Experts have not yet agreed on a unified explanation of the cultural or artistic meaning of cupules. However, a theory by archaeologist Charles P. Mountford in the early 1940s proposed that the creation of cupules might be associated with fertility rites. To investigate this, Mountford studied an Aboriginal tribe who continued to create cupules. Mountford witnessed the tribe hammering cupules as part of a fertility ritual for the pink cockatoo. The Aborigines pounded the cupules into a rock thought to contain the life essence of this bird. As the cupules were pounded out, the mineral dust that arose was thought to increase the female cockatoo’s production of eggs, which were a valuable food source for the Aborigines.
Q: What did Mountford hope to evaluate with his research?
Whether the effort expended in creating cupules indicates their importance to prehistoric cultures
Whether the creation of cupules was associated with fertility rites
Whether the mineral dust created when cupules are pounded out has ritual purposes
Whether the date of a cupule can be determined through experimentation
→(P5) Experts have not yet agreed on a unified explanation of the cultural or artistic meaning of cupules. However, a theory by archaeologist Charles P. Mountford in the early 1940s proposed that the creation of cupules might be associated with fertility rites. To investigate this, Mountford studied an Aboriginal tribe who continued to create cupules. Mountford witnessed the tribe hammering cupules as part of a fertility ritual for the pink cockatoo. The Aborigines pounded the cupules into a rock thought to contain the life essence of this bird. As the cupules were pounded out, the mineral dust that arose was thought to increase the female cockatoo’s production of eggs, which were a valuable food source for the Aborigines.
Q: The word “unified” in the passage is closest in meaning to
Popular
Simple
Thorough
Consolidated
→(P6) The earliest known examples of cupule art, dating back to between 290,000 and 700,000 B.C., were found in central India. It can be difficult for archaeologists to estimate the exact date of creation for many cupules, however, because some appear to have been reworked by later artists, sometimes thousands of years later. For instance, one cupule at Moda Bhata, India, created around 7,000 B.C., was re-pounded around A.D. 200. Some researchers were initially surprised that all of the oldest known cupules appear on highly weatherproof and extremely hard rock, given the great physical effort clearly needed to create such formations. These same researchers questioned why easier, softer rocks were not chosen. However, it is entirely possible that this pattern is the result of survivorship bias: cupules formed on hard and more weatherproof rock are more likely to survive to the present day. It is probable that archaeologists may one day discover even older cupules in weather-protected soft rock.
Q: According to paragraph 6, the knowledge that some cupules were re-pounded suggests what difficulty for cupule research?
It makes it tough to determine the purpose of the cupule.
It complicates efforts to estimate when cupules were created.
It undermines the belief that cupules are more difficult to create in hard rock.
It indicates that survivorship bias had tainted the archaeological record.
→(P6) The earliest known examples of cupule art, dating back to between 290,000 and 700,000 B.C., were found in central India. It can be difficult for archaeologists to estimate the exact date of creation for many cupules, however, because some appear to have been reworked by later artists, sometimes thousands of years later. For instance, one cupule at Moda Bhata, India, created around 7,000 B.C., was re-pounded around A.D. 200. Some researchers were initially surprised that all of the oldest known cupules appear on highly weatherproof and extremely hard rock, given the great physical effort clearly needed to create such formations. These same researchers questioned why easier, softer rocks were not chosen. However, it is entirely possible that this pattern is the result of survivorship bias: cupules formed on hard and more weatherproof rock are more likely to survive to the present day. It is probable that archaeologists may one day discover even older cupules in weather-protected soft rock.
Q: Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in paragraph 6? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.
Despite their initial surprise, several researchers confirmed that cupule formations are more difficult to create in hard rock, using the oldest known cupules.
Finding the oldest cupules in extremely hard rock, which would have required immense labor to shape, was unexpected to some scientists.
Researchers were surprised that the cupules that were most likely to survive the longest would be found in very hard, weatherproof rock, given the creation effort required.
Because cupules were extremely hard to make, scientists were astounded by the age of the oldest known cupules in weatherproof rock.
In paragraphs 5 and 6 of the passage, there is a missing sentence. The paragraph is repeated below and shows four letters [A], [B], [C], and [D] that indicate where the following sentence could be added.
This doubt arises from the expectation that as cultures advanced in history, their tools advanced as well, suggesting that the tools used to hammer early cupules were more rudimentary and would be less successful when used on hard rock.
Where would the sentence best fit?
→(P5&6) As the cupules were pounded out, the mineral dust that arose was thought to increase the female cockatoo’s production of eggs, which were a valuable food source for the Aborigines.
[A]The earliest known examples of cupule art, dating back to between 290,000 and 700,000 B.C., were found in central India. It can be difficult for archaeologists to estimate the exact date of creation for many cupules, however, because some appear to have been reworked by later artists, sometimes thousands of years later.[B] For instance, one cupule at Moda Bhata, India, created around 7,000 B.C., was re-pounded around A.D. 200. Some researchers were initially surprised that all of the oldest known cupules appear on highly weatherproof and extremely hard rock, given the great physical effort clearly needed to create such formations. These same researchers questioned why easier, softer rocks were not chosen. [C]However, it is entirely possible that this pattern is the result of survivorship bias: cupules formed on hard and more weatherproof rock are more likely to survive to the present day. It is probable that archaeologists may one day discover even older cupules in weather-protected soft rock.[D]
[A]The earliest known examples of cupule art, dating back to between 290,000 and 700,000 B.C., were found in central India. It can be difficult for archaeologists to estimate the exact date of creation for many cupules, however, because some appear to have been reworked by later artists, sometimes thousands of years later.[B] For instance, one cupule at Moda Bhata, India, created around 7,000 B.C., was re-pounded around A.D. 200. Some researchers were initially surprised that all of the oldest known cupules appear on highly weatherproof and extremely hard rock, given the great physical effort clearly needed to create such formations. These same researchers questioned why easier, softer rocks were not chosen. [C]However, it is entirely possible that this pattern is the result of survivorship bias: cupules formed on hard and more weatherproof rock are more likely to survive to the present day. It is probable that archaeologists may one day discover even older cupules in weather-protected soft rock.[D]
Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.
- Throughout history and around the globe, humans have created artwork known as rock art.
Cupules, the oldest and most prevalent form of rock art, are defined as serving a predominantly symbolic purpose.
The effort to create cupules was often made easier by soft rock and therefore supports their purely decorative purpose.
Cupules have been successfully used to better understand the utilitarian purpose of parietal art.
The effort to create the collections of cupules already discovered speaks to the importance that prehistoric cultures placed on symbolic activities.
Archaeologists continue to investigate the age of cupules and their potential symbolic significance to prehistoric and present-day cultures.
Recently, researchers and archaeologists have been able to come to an agreement on the specific meaning of cupules.
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