Animal Behavior Final review

A detailed illustration of different animal behaviors such as social interactions, foraging strategies, and communication methods, featuring various species in their natural habitats.

Animal Behavior Mastery Quiz

Test your knowledge of animal behavior concepts and theories with our comprehensive quiz. This quiz covers a range of topics from latent learning to mating systems, ensuring that you have the necessary understanding of the field.

Features of the quiz include:

36 multiple choice questions
Diverse topics from animal communication to foraging behavior
Scoring to assess your mastery of animal behavior concepts

36 Questions9 MinutesCreated by ObservingEagle42

What is Latent Learning?

Latent learning is when an organism learns a new concept in its life, however, the knowledge is not immediately expressed. Instead, the knowledge remains dormant. It may not be available to consciousness until specific events or experiences might need this knowledge to be demonstrated.

Latent learning is a social learning behavior where an observer seems to learn by watching a conspecific as to how a goal is to be achieved. It will learn the steps required to achieve a goal by watching a conspecific and will be able to utilize that knowledge later to achieve its goal.

Latent learning is a type of classical conditioning occurring in a social setting. An animal learns a conditioned response by observing a conspecific. It may not need that knowledge until later in life but due to this experience it will be available to the animal when needed.

Latent learning is when an organism learns a new concept by watching a conspecific. There is a range in the level of sharing of this information from inadvertent sharing (ex; lemon sharks) to individuals actively sharing information (ex; chimps).

A series of studies on social behaviors in the Rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta) looked at how the social environment an animal is raised in will affect its behavior and hormone levels. What was determined?

Studies on early social and hormonal environments and their relationship to the expression of behavioral sex differences in rhesus monkeys demonstrated that sexual dimorphism in aggressive and submissive behaviors depends primarily on the social and not the hormonal environment.

What was the purpose to the comparative study of seed caching in three related American songbirds (Clark’s nutcracker, pinyon jay, and scrub jay)?

All three species store nuts/seeds to get through the winter. Because they live in different environments with differing harshness levels to the winters this study showed how environment plays a role in the evolution of behavior.

In Comparative Psychology one approach to determining the how a behavior was learned is the Comparative Method. By comparing how the behavior is learned in related species you can determine the mechanism of learning.

In Ethology one approach to determining the evolution of a behavior, as well as its selective value, is the Comparative Method. By comparing how the behavior occurs in related species (ex; Empid flies and nuptial gifts) you can determine why and how a behavior evolved.

All three species were demonstrated to use the same gene, the Dunce gene, for memorization of caches locations and where to find seeds. This helps to understand the role that genes have in learning.

Describe the two events and identify the gene involved in the learning of its song by a songbird.

Song learning in songbirds is a special type of learning that occurs in two distinct phases separated by several months: Memorization and Rehearsal. The first phase is Memorization and can be regarded as purely observational learning by listening to the songs of conspecifics. The second phase is Rehearsal and can be thought of as the perfection of the song through practice (i.e., as imitation of a model). The gene that allows for this is the Erg-1 gene.

Song learning in songbirds is a special type of learning that occurs in two distinct phases separated by several months: Sensory Learning and Sensorimotor Learning. The first phase is Sensory Learning and can be regarded as purely observational learning by listening to the songs of conspecifics. The second phase is Sensorimotor Learning and can be thought of as the perfection of the song through practice (i.e., as imitation of a model). The gene that allows for this is the Zenk gene.

We discussed alternative reproductive strategies utilized by male ruffs (Philomarchus pugnax) and male marine iguana (Amblyrhynchus cristatus). What is this an example of ?

The three alternate reproductive strategies are an example of how plasma-testosterone levels will affect reproductive strategies in accordance with the Challenge Hypothesis. These behaviors will vary from breeding season to breeding season based on variations in plasma-testosterone levels.

The three alternate reproductive strategies are actually examples of two things that we covered in class. One is a mixed ESS because more than one ESS is being used successfully by these species. The other is how plasma-testosterone levels will affect reproductive strategies.

The three alternate reproductive strategies are actually examples of a mixed ESS. In both species more than one ESS is being used successfully by these species. This helps to explain diversity in response to Natural Selection.

The three alternate reproductive strategies are actually examples of the influence of genes on behavior. Different genes are turned on in different males causing them to act differently. This results in three approaches to securing mating rights being used by these species.

Carol Lynch in 1980 designed a study to determine if genes controlled the behavior of nest building in mice. How did she do that?

Carol Lynch utilized artificial selection to determine if genes controlled the volume of nesting material used by mice in nest building. She divided the test group up into two populations and in one bred together low nest volume mice, in the other she bred together high nest volume mice, and looked at the changes in behavior over time/generations.

Carol Lynch determined which gene controlled the volume of nesting material used by mice by knocking down that gene in one test population, knocking it up in the other test population, and then looked at the changes in behavior over time/generations.

Carol Lynch utilized natural genetic variants to determine if genes controlled the volume of nesting material used by mice in nest building. She cross bred low nest volume mice with high nest volume mice and looked at the changes in behavior over time/generations to see if an average nest volume was reached.

Carol Lynch utilized natural genetic variants to determine if genes controlled the volume of nesting material used by mice in nest building. She divided the test group up into two populations and in one bred together low nest volume mice, in the other she bred together high nest volume mice, and looked at the changes in behavior over time/generations.

What is the “Law of Effect”?

The Law of Effect states that responses which are rewarded are more likely to be repeated. It is a major component of operant conditioning, which is why operant conditioning is a form of nonassociative learning. B. F Skinner is credited with developing the Law of Effect.

The Law of Effect states that responses which are rewarded are more likely to be repeated. It is a major component of classical conditioning, which is why classical conditioning is a form of nonassociative learning. B. F Skinner is credited with developing the Law of Effect.

The Law of Effect states that responses which are rewarded are more likely to be repeated. It is a major component of operant conditioning, which is why operant conditioning is a form of learning associated with reinforcement and punishment. E. L. Thorndike is credited with developing the Law of Effect.

The Law of Effect states that responses which are rewarded are more likely to be repeated. It is a major component of classical conditioning, which is why classical conditioning is a form of learning associated with reinforcement and punishment. Ivan Pavlov is credited with developing the Law of Effect.

C. Lloyd Morgan was an early Comparative Psychologist. What is he known for?

In the first half of the 20th century C. Lloyd Morgan attempted to localize learning in the cerebral cortex. He is well known for his contributions to the study of memory. It was believed that learned behaviors would cause an increase in the density of neural connections. He tested this by training rats and after they had learned from the tests he would destroy portions of the cerebrum and then retest the animal. He was unable to determine one spot where learning resided.

In 1918 C. Lloyd Morgan was the first to state that animal behavior was instinctual. He stated that all nonhuman behaviors were simply tropisms.

C. Lloyd Morgan attempted to tie both ethology and comparative psychology together and developed the four questions of Animal Behavior. 1) What are the mechanisms that cause a particular behavior? 2) How did this particular behavior develop? 3) What is the survival value of this particular behavior? 4) How did this particular behavior evolve?

C. Lloyd Morgan argued that behavior should be explained in the simplest of ways that is consistent with the available evidence. When there are two explanations possible, he urged that the simplest explanation be chosen. This approach came to be known as Morgan’s Cannon.

One antipredator strategy is for a harmless animal to mimic the warning signals of a more dangerous species (ex; nonvenomous vs. venomous). What type of mimicry is this and how does it affect the model and the mimic?

This is Batesian Mimicry. The mimic gains the same advantage as the model, without having to go to the expense of arming themselves. However, the model is disadvantaged. If imposters appear in high numbers, positive experiences with the mimic may result in the model being treated as harmless. So, although the model may kill its predator it dies itself.

This is Mullerian Mimicry. The mimic gains the same advantage as the model, without having to go to the expense of arming themselves. If imposters appear in high numbers then the model will also benefit because the similarity in warning signals will reinforce the message, decreasing predation on both the mimic and model.

This is Batesian Mimicry. The mimic gains the same advantage as the model, without having to go to the expense of arming themselves. If imposters appear in high numbers then the model will also benefit because the similarity in warning signals will reinforce the message, decreasing predation on both the mimic and model.

This is Mullerian Mimicry. The mimic gains the same advantage as the model, without having to go to the expense of arming themselves. However, the model is disadvantaged. If imposters appear in high numbers, positive experiences with the mimic may result in the model being treated as harmless. So, although the model may kill its predator it dies itself.

If, according to the optimal foraging model, an animal will forage in such a way as to maximize their net energy intake per unit time why doesn’t an animal always consume the most energy rich food available at every meal?

Sometimes the animal must make use of less profitable food items if those food items contain essential nutrients, if the more profitable food item has toxins, or if the more profitable food item is harder to find.

This question is invalid. Quantitative examination of the optimal foraging model showed no statistical validity to the proposal that the animal would choose the more profitable food more often than chance alone would account for. Animals are struggling to survive and will eat anything available to them.

According to the optimal foraging model an animal will always consume the most energy profitable food available. So they will not choose less energy rewarding food choices.

Sometimes the animal will “decide” to invest less energy in obtaining food (represented by E). So it will not be consuming the most energy rich food options (represented by h).

Optimal foraging theory is an idea in behavioral ecology based on the study of foraging behavior and states that organisms forage in such a way as to maximize their net energy intake per unit time. It is represented by the formula E/h. What does this formula actually mean?

The formula determines the profitability of a food item by measuring the energy gained from it (E) in calories versus that energy that had to be invested into obtaining and processing that food item (h).

The formula determines the benefit of the food item to animal’s inclusive fitness by measuring the energy gained from it (E) in calories versus that energy that had to be invested into obtaining and processing that food item (h).

The formula determines the benefit of the food item to animal’s inclusive fitness by measuring the increase in fitness/health due to eating the food item (h) versus that effort that had to be invested into obtaining and processing that food item (E).

The formula determines the profitability of a food item by measuring the increase in fitness/health due to eating the food item (h) versus that effort that had to be invested into obtaining and processing that food item (E).

What are the costs and benefits in Natal Philopatry?

Benefits of natal philopatry include staying in a habitat that you are well adapted to and know well which gives an advantage in finding resources and avoiding predators. Costs include increased competition with relatives, increased chances of inbreeding, and increased chances of mating suppression.

The costs and benefits of natal philopatry can only be calculated and evaluated by also knowing the quality of suitable habitats to disperse to. This is why these calculations include the Natal Habitat Preference Induction component (or NHPI).

From an evolutionary point of view, the cost and benefits of natal philopatry versus natal dispersal even out within a species. This is why there is an inconsistent bias of which gender within a species is more likely to practice natal dispersal.

Benefits of natal philopatry include decreased competition with relatives, decreased chances of inbreeding, and decreased chances of mating suppression. Costs include moving from an area that you are well adapted to, increased exposure to potential/new predators, and the energy costs of travel.

What are the criteria for a biological clock?

A biological clock must be persistent in constant conditions, exhibit temperature compensation and have the capacity for entrainment.

A biological clock must be persistent in constant conditions, endogenous, and have the capacity for entrainment.

A biological clock must be endogenous, entrainable, and Free Running.

A biological clock must be able to be Free Running, have the capacity to compensate for temperature variations, and be consistent regardless of environmental changes.

Can imprinting play a role in migrations and, if so, how?

Yes, it can. In the case of Lorenz’s goslings, they imprinted on him as a mother figure to follow. So, animals will imprint on conspecifics and follow them. That way they can successfully navigate a migration (ex; goslings).

No, it does not. They are two separate things. Imprinting allows an animal to learn behavior of its species and how to select an appropriate mate. Migrations are seasonal journeys/journeys of great distance. There are unrelated stages of an animal’s life history.

Yes, it can. Imprinting occurs early in life when the animal is more susceptible to exogenous stimuli. This allows if to imprint on its natal environment and use that imprinting to find its way back to its birthplace when migrating (ex; salmon).

No, it does not. Imprinting occurs too early in the life of most animals to play a role in migration. Instead, animals possess inherited compasses that they will use for migration (ex; starlings and warblers).

What is imprinting and how is it affected by the sensitive period?

Imprinting is defined as any kind of phase-sensitive learning that is rapid and apparently independent of the consequences of behavior. “Phase sensitive” refers to the sensitive period. Because imprinting occurs within the sensitive period it will be rigid in terms of its onset and duration, the imprinted behavior can be lost but that is less likely to happen than is the case with other types of learning, and the sensitive period can vary between members of the species.

Imprinting is defined as any kind of phase-sensitive learning that is rapid and apparently independent of the consequences of behavior. “Phase sensitive” refers to the sensitive period. Because imprinting occurs within the sensitive period it can be gradual in terms of its onset and duration, the imprinted behavior can be lost but that is less likely to happen than is the case with other types of learning, and the sensitive period can vary between members of the species.

Imprinting is defined as any type of rapid learning that occurs in a particular life stage and occurs independently of the outcome of behavior. The particular life stage is the sensitive period. Because imprinting occurs within the sensitive period it is rigid in terms of its onset and duration, the imprinted behavior can never be lost, and the sensitive period is the same for all members of the species.

Imprinting is defined as any type of rapid learning that occurs in a particular life stage and occurs independently of the outcome of behavior. The particular life stage is the sensitive period. Because imprinting occurs within the sensitive period it can be gradual in terms of its onset and duration, the imprinted behavior can never be lost, and the sensitive period is the same for all members of the species.

What is the typical pattern for the timing of sensitive periods and why?

The onset of a sensitive period will be due to a combination of external and internal factors. Since an animal will be experiencing a variety of external and internal factors throughout its lifetime then it will be able to have sensitive periods throughout its lifetime. However, the number of sensitive periods will be greater earlier in life because everything is still new to the animal. As it matures and has experienced more of the world then the amount of new stimuli will diminish and sensitive periods will become less common.

Sensitive periods occur only after the animal has reached maturity. This is because only the mature nervous system can respond sufficiently to exogenous stimuli to form a learned pattern of behavior.

Sensitive periods will occur early in life for two reasons: 1) the young nervous system is still developing and plastic and 2) because for many animals it is only in their youth that they encounter conspecifics such as their parents.

How does ritualization play a role in agonistic interactions?

Ritualized signals are clear forms of communication that are designed to avoid misinterpretation. These clear signals allow animals to avoid agonistic interactions caused by confusion.

Ritualized signals are clear forms of communication that are designed to avoid misinterpretation. Since agonistic behaviors involve fight, threat, and submission the purpose of ritualization is two-fold. This clear communication allows threat and submission displays to be clear to both opponents avoiding unnecessary conflict while also ritualized fighting usually avoids the use of the animal’s more dangerous weapons decreasing the chance of serious harm occurring to both opponents.

Ritualized signals are clear forms of communication that are designed to avoid misinterpretation. When it comes to agonistic fighting ritualized fighting usually avoids the use of the animal’s more dangerous weapons decreasing the chance of serious harm occurring to both opponents.

Ritualized signals are clear forms of communication that are designed to avoid misinterpretation. This allows threat and submission displays to be clear to both opponents avoiding unnecessary conflict.

How can chemical communication improve on territoriality?

One limiting factor in maintaining a territory is patrolling the territory to deter interlopers. Some species can produce noxious chemical signals that make the territory unattractive to competitors. This allows the animal to maintain a larger territory.

One limiting factor in maintaining a territory is patrolling the territory to deter interlopers. Chemical communication can help but it is more of a deterrent to an interloper to see the territory’s owner through agonistic signaling. As a result, chemical communication is less important than is auditory or visual communication for defending a territory

One limiting factor in maintaining a territory is patrolling the territory to deter interlopers. Some species can produce chemical signals that will attract predators to the portions of the territory that it is not at. This will deter interlopers and allows the animal to maintain a larger territory.

One limiting factor in maintaining a territory is patrolling the territory to deter interlopers. Where some communication modes that require the animal to be visible and the signal to be short in duration, chemical signals can be long lasting and do not require the sender of the signal to be present. This allows the animal to maintain a larger territory.

How does the idea that that female preference for certain traits used by males to attract females because they stimulate a preexisting sensory bias that may be unrelated to sex relate to one of the ideas behind the evolution of communication?

Receiver-bias mechanisms focus on the characteristics of the recipient and how that may influence the evolution of a signal. In particular, sensory exploitation is when the receiver has a pre-existing bias for a particular stimulus and the male can exploit that bias to attract the female (ex; indigo bowerbirds using blue ornaments in the bower because the females prefer blue food).

One mechanism for the evolution of communication is ritualization, where incipient signals become more stereotyped and unambiguous in a population over evolutionary time. Autonomic responses are part of the raw material used in the ritualization of signals. The females are predisposed to react positively to these autonomic signals which allows the male to court the female.

Receiver-bias mechanisms focus on the characteristics of the recipient and how that may influence the evolution of a signal. In particular, sensory drive is when the receiver has a pre-existing bias for a particular stimulus that drives the male to exploit to attract the female (ex; indigo bowerbirds using blue ornaments in the bower because the females prefer blue food).

One mechanism for the evolution of communication is ritualization, where incipient signals become more stereotyped and unambiguous in a population over evolutionary time. Females are genetically predisposed to these ritualized signals both elated and unrelated to sex. This makes it easier for the male to court the female.

How does the mating system of polygynandry affect infanticide by the males?

Polygynandry is where two or more males have an exclusive relationship with two or more females. Since the female will mate with all of the males involved none of the males know who the father is. Since there is a good chance that they are the father they will not kill the young; infanticide will not occur. This is an example of reciprocal altruism since the males will not kill the offspring of the other males with the expectation that they will not kill his offspring.

Polygynandry is where two or more males have an exclusive relationship with two or more females. Since the female will mate with all of the males involved none of the males know who the father is. Since there is a chance that the offspring will not be his and not benefit his direct fitness, the male will be more likely to conduct infanticide. This will induce the female to ovulate and give him a chance to sire his own offspring.

Polygynandry is where two or more males have an exclusive relationship with two or more females. Since the female will mate with all of the males involved none of the males know who the father is. However, since all of the males will take parental responsibility, the other females will not be able to reproduce. As a result, they will kill the offspring, infanticide, to induce the males to mate with them increasing their direct fitness.

How does the Polygyny Threshold Hypothesis benefit the direct fitness of the female?

The Polygyny Threshold Hypothesis does not measure the direct fitness of the female. It is only concerned with the direct fitness of the dominant male. It proposes that the larger the male’s harem the greater will be his direct fitness.

The Polygyny Threshold Hypothesis proposes that the larger the male’s harem the less he benefits from investing energy in the rearing of his young. This would mean that the female incurs the entire cost of parental investment. The threshold is determined by what number of competitive females is so high that the female will receive no parental investment form the male and so the cost is higher for her.

The Polygyny Threshold Hypothesis proposes that polygynous matings are beneficial to females when the number of females in the harem is low. The lower the number of females the greater the direct fitness incurred by the male in taking part in rearing the young. The threshold is determined by what number of competitive females is low enough so that she gets a significant amount of parental investment from the male.

The Polygyny Threshold Hypothesis proposes that polygynous matings are beneficial to females when the benefits achieved by mating with a high quality male and by gaining access to his resources increase her reproductive fitness over the costs involved.

How does Fisher’s Runaway Mechanism relate to the Sexy Son Hypothesis?

The Sexy Son Hypothesis states that the male offspring will inherit phenotypic feature (or features) that are desired by the females. This means that his relatives would preferentially mate with him. Fisher’s Runaway Mechanism is a threat avoidance mechanism where an animal avoids problems (ex; predators, famine) by fleeing. In this case, to avoid the genetic penalties of incest, his female relatives will flee the home range, practicing natal dispersal while he will practice natal philopatry.

Fisher’s Runaway Mechanism causes a dramatic increase in both the male's conspicuous feature and in female preference for it, until practical, physical constraints halt further exaggeration. A positive feedback loop is created, producing extravagant physical structures in the non-limiting sex and the female preference for the trait may be passed on genetically. The offspring of both sexes will inherit both sets of genes, with females expressing their genetic preference for the trait, and males showing off the trait. The Sexy Son Hypothesis states that since she has mated with a male having the desired trait and her sons will inherit that trait, her sons will have an increased reproductive success which means that she will have an increased reproductive success.

The Sexy Son Hypothesis states that the male offspring will inherit phenotypic feature (or features) that are desired by the females. This means that his relatives would preferentially mate with him. Fisher’s Runaway Mechanism is a threat avoidance mechanism where an animal avoids problems (ex; predators, famine) by fleeing. In this case the male will flee the undesirable results of incest by practicing natal dispersal.

Fisher’s Runaway Mechanism causes a dramatic increase in both the male's conspicuous feature and in female preference for it, until practical, physical constraints halt further exaggeration. A positive feedback loop is created, producing extravagant physical structures in the non-limiting sex and the female preference for the trait may be passed on genetically. The offspring of both sexes will inherit both sets of genes, with females expressing their genetic preference for the trait, and males showing off the trait. The Sexy Son Hypothesis states that since she has mated with a male having the desired trait and her sons will inherit that trait, he will have an increased reproductive success. This means that the she will preferentially mate with her sons to increase her inclusive fitness.

How does the female choosing a prospective mate on the ability to provide a good territory apply to direct vs. Indirect parental investment?

The nature of the natal territory has a profound effect on the health of the offspring and the success of the parents in raising them. These effects are both immediate and less than immediate so choosing the male based on territory by the female is an example of both indirect and direct parental investment.

Indirect Parental Care includes behaviors that do not have an immediate physical effect on the offspring. Although the nature of the territory that the animal is raised in can have a physical effect on the offspring it is not an immediate effect. As a result, choosing the male based on territory by the female is an example of indirect parental investment.

Choosing the male based on territory by the female has more to do with her evaluating his ability to dominate rival males and gain the best resources. It is neither indirect nor direct parental investment but an example of using an indicator as a gene model for potential reproductive success.

Direct Parental Care includes behaviors that have an immediate physical effect on the offspring and their survival. The nature of the territory that the animal is raised in will have an immediate physical effect on the offspring. As a result, choosing the male based on territory by the female is an example of direct parental investment.

In addition to being a competitive strategy used by males to ensure their sperm fertilizes the female’s eggs, what else is mating inhibitory secretions an example of and how?

Mating inhibitory secretions are also an example of intersexual selection. The females that can develop a greater tolerance to these secretions will be able to reproduce more frequently increasing their direct fitness. As a result, these will be the females that the males will be preferentially selecting to mate with.

Mating inhibitory secretions are also an example of intrasexual selection. The females that can develop a greater tolerance to these secretions will be able to reproduce more frequently increasing their direct fitness.

Mating inhibitory secretions are also an example of sexual conflict. The interests of the males, to decrease reproductive opportunities for the females, are in direct opposition to that of the females, to increase mating opportunities of the females. Added to this, mating inhibitory secretions can also have deleterious effects on the females.

Mating inhibitory secretions are also an example of kin selection. These secretions inhibit the female from mating with males whose chemical signature is too different from that of the male who marked her. That gives his male relatives a competitive advantage in mating.

There is some controversy as to what the criteria are to designate a behavior as a Fixed Action Pattern. What are the criteria used to define a FAP by classical ethologists?

The FAP is innate, performed by all appropriate members of the species, the sequence of component acts making up the FAP are unalterable and consistent between members of the species, and the FAP may be triggered under inappropriate circumstances.

The FAP is a learned behavior, performed by all members of the species, the sequence of component acts making up the FAP are unalterable and consistent between members of the species, and the FAP may be triggered under inappropriate circumstances.

The FAP is instinctual, performed by all appropriate members of the species, the sequence of component acts making up the FAP vary between members of the species, and the FAP can not be triggered under inappropriate circumstances.

The FAP is a learned behavior, performed by all appropriate members of the species, the sequence of component acts making up the FAP vary between members of the species, and the FAP can be triggered under inappropriate circumstances.

Recent research has demonstrated the role the genetics plays in behavior. What is the current understanding of the role that genetics plays in behavior?

Genes are the blueprint that will drive the development of the nervous system. The ability of an animal to learn and exhibit behaviors is determined by the nature of the nervous system. For example, without the development of a complex brain true learning cannot occur.

The role of genetics in animal behavior is profound. Genes will influence the development of the nervous and endocrine systems as well as a variety of regulatory and receptor proteins. The interactions of all of these factors can be complex leading to a variety of behaviors from simple to complex.

Genes are responsible for all aspects of animal behavior since all non-human animal behaviors are limited to automatic responses determined by the animal’s genetic code. Due to the fact that all behaviors are instinctual then the genetic code hard wires the programming of these behaviors.

Genes only play a role in behaviors though epigenetics. Environmental events will produce inheritable permanent changes in the DNA which will cause behavioral changes. It is only through these epigenetic events that we can demonstrate genes having a n influence on behavior.

One evidence of cognitive behavior in animals is self-perception, the perception of oneself. This was once thought to occur only in humans, but Gordon G. Gallup tested this idea using the “mirror test”. What did his test show and what are the ramifications?

The mirror test demonstrated that some species may have self-perception indicating the possibility of higher order thinking. Being aware of oneself indicates the beginnings of consciousness.

The mirror test demonstrated a lack of self-perception in all species studies confirming that self-perception is unique to humans. Other species lack the higher cerebral functioning required for self-awareness and conscious thought.

The mirror test demonstrated that some species may have self-perception indicating the possibility of higher order thinking. However, it is considered to be flawed because it only tested in a way that favored species using vision for self-recognition. Animals that rely primarily on other sensory modalities, such as olfaction or audition, may have self-perception but would demonstrate it through visual stimuli. Testing with a wider array of sensory modalities may produce better results.

The mirror test demonstrated that all vertebrates have self-perception indicating the possibility of higher order thinking. Humans are not unique in this capacity. It is shared a across the subphylum indicating both the complexity of the vertebrate brain and a shared origin for all vertebrates.

How do we currently understand the processes involved in the reinforcement of short term memories to form intermediate term memories and intermediate term memories to form long term memories?

The reinforcement of a memory so that it lasts longer involves neurogenesis, to produce new cells to encode the memory, and long term potentiation, to strengthen the connections between the neurons involved. It also involves synaptic remodeling, to reinforce communication between the cells involved, and long term depression, to clear out old memories to give room for the new memories to form. These mechanisms allow for new memories to form/be reinforced at the loss of old/unused memories.

The reinforcement of a memory so that it lasts longer involves neurogenesis, to produce new cells to encode the memory, and long term potentiation, to strengthen the connections between the neurons involved. It also involves synaptic remodeling, to reinforce communication between the cells involved and eradicate old/unused synapses, and long term depression, to clear out old memories to give room for the new memories to form. These mechanisms allow for new memories to form/be reinforced at the loss of old/unused memories.

The reinforcement of a memory so that it lasts longer involves neurogenesis, to produce new cells to encode the memory, and synaptic remodeling, to reinforce communication between the cells involved. These mechanisms allow for new memories to form/be reinforced without the loss of old/unused memories by increasing storage capacity in the brain .

What is the relationship between biological clocks and navigation?

Biological clocks regulate the physiology of the animal. This physiological regulation will allow the animal to prepare its body for seasonal travel (i.e., producing magnetite) and the ability to tell time will inform the animal of when to travel.

Biological clocks allow an animal to have a sense of time in their environment. This is essential for those species that use time sensitive navigational clues such as a sun compass, polarized light, or a star compass. By the knowing what time it is relative to the navigational clue the animal knows in which direction to travel.

Biological clocks and navigation are independent of one another. They are both important to the life of an animal, but they do not interact in any significant way and can be considered to work as separate entities, from a physiological point of view.

Biological clocks “tell” and animal when to start traveling and for how long. Navigation ensures that the animal is heading in the right direction. The underlying physiological mechanisms are separate between the two and the relationship is purely coincidental.

What are the costs and benefits in Natal Dispersal?

Benefits of natal dispersal include decreased competition with relatives, decreased chances of inbreeding, and decreased chances of mating suppression. Costs include moving from an area that you are well adapted to, increased exposure to potential/new predators, and the energy costs of travel.

Benefits of natal dispersal include staying in a habitat that you are well adapted to and know well which gives an advantage in fining resources and avoiding predators. Costs include increased competition with relatives, increased chances of inbreeding, and increased chances of mating suppression.

From an evolutionary point of view, the cost and benefits of natal philopatry versus natal dispersal even out with in a species. This is why there is an inconsistent bias of which gender within a species is more likely to practice natal dispersal.

The costs and benefits of natal dispersal can only be calculated and evaluated by also knowing the quality of suitable habitats to disperse to. This is why these calculations include the Natal Habitat Preference Induction component (or NHPI).

What is meant by the term “Runaway Mechanisms”?

The runaway mechanism is an antipredator tactic. Many cursorial prey species (ex; gazelles) have evolved the ability to flee from a predator swiftly to reduce their chances of capture and consumption. At the same time a pursuit predator (ex; cheetahs) will evolve to run faster to compensate for the speed of the prey animal. This results in an evolutionary arms race between predator and prey.

The runaway mechanism is the result of intrasexual selection between males. As males compete for access to females, they will develop features which will give them a selective advantage over competitors. Through selective pressures the males will “choose” to enhance these features over generations to gain a competitive advantage.

The runaway mechanism is the result of intrasexual selection between females. As females compete for access to males, they will develop features which will give them a selective advantage over competitors. Through selective pressures the females will “choose” to enhance these features over generations to gain a competitive advantage.

The runaway mechanism is the idea that the male trait is correlated with the female preference for that trait. It starts when a female evolves a preference for a specific trait. The female will mate with a male that has that trait and the trait will be passed on to her sons. This results in a dramatic increase in both the male's conspicuous feature and in female preference for it, until practical, physical constraints halt further exaggeration.

In 1979 Parker defined the term “Sexual Conflict”. What was parker’s definition for sexual conflict?

Parker defined sexual conflict as a conflict between the evolutionary interests of males competing for access to females, the limiting factor. By outcompeting rival males for access to females a male will increase his reproductive fitness. This has resulted in the development male sexual features such as sexual dimorphism, sperm heteromorphism, mating plugs, and mate guarding.

Parker defined sexual conflict as a conflict between the evolutionary interests of males and females in regard to mating strategies. For example, traits that evolve in the male to give him a competitive advantage over other males may be deleterious to the female. In effect an antagonistic co-evolution occurs between males and females where sexual morphology changes over time to counteract the opposite gender’s sex traits so as to maximize reproductive success.

Parker defined sexual conflict as a conflict between the evolutionary interests of females competing for access to males, the higher the quality of the male the greater the competitive advantage. By outcompeting rival females for access to higher quality males a female will increase her reproductive fitness. This has resulted in the development female sexual features such as cryptic female choice, sexual cannibalism, and biparental care.

Parker defined sexual conflict as a conflict between the evolutionary interests of the reproducing adults and the evolutionary interests of the resultant offspring. The offspring would increase their fitness by securing more resources from the parents while the parents could increase their fitness by increasing their mating events, at the cost of caring for the offspring. It is a conflict between current and future reproductive fitness for the parents.

What is meant by the “Sexy Son Hypothesis”?

This is a result of the benefits in the Polygyny Threshold Hypothesis. Since the mother selected a male with the most desirable traits, and these traits are inheritable, her sons will be sexier/more desirable to females. As a result, her sons will have more mating opportunities. However, since her daughters will also inherit a preference for these traits, her daughters will prefer males possessing these traits. This can lead to a problem with inbreeding.

This is an offshoot of the Polygyny Threshold Hypothesis. Since the female has mated with the dominant male, who would have the best genes, her sons will have inherited those genes conferring on them an increased chance of reproductive success. This increases her reproductive success as well.

The sexy son allele is a recognition allele promoting altruism/kin selection to those individuals bearing the allele. Because of the benefit of possessing the green beard allele, selection would favor it and the percentage of individuals bearing this allele would increase in the population over time.

The sexy son allele is a recognition allele promoting altruism/kin selection to those individuals bearing the allele. Since possessing an allele that increases altruism directed to the bearer of the allele increases his fitness and the allele is inheritable then females will prefer males with this allele so as to increase their own fitness. The preference for a male with this recognition allele is what makes him “sexier” than his competitors.

What is the “Handicap Principle” and how does it affect the honesty of a signal?

Amotz Zahavi argued that animals with conflicting interests should evolve behavioral displays that are less costly to the signaler, so as to increase its chances for survival. By showing that it can endure a handicap, the animal reliably indicates its high quality, a message that other animals do well to respect. Due to the cost the signal is likely to be dishonest.

Motz Zahavi argued that animals should evolve behavioral displays that indicate to a predator that they have been detected and further pursuit is unprofitable (ex; stotting) called handicaps. Since this is an anti-predator technique involving bluffing the predator, this signal is likely to be dishonest.

Motz Zahavi argued that animals should evolve behavioral displays that indicate to a predator that they have been detected and further pursuit is unprofitable (ex; stotting) called handicaps. Due to the cost the signaler if it is challenged by the predator, the signal is likely to be honest.

Amotz Zahavi argued that animals with conflicting interests should evolve behavioral displays that are costly to the signaler, even if they lower its chances for survival. By showing that it can endure a handicap, the animal reliably indicates its high quality, a message that other animals do well to respect. Due to the cost the signal is likely to be honest.

What are the selective forces shaping the evolution of signals within a species?

There are three recognized forces: the physical characteristics of the sender of the signal, the characteristics of the environment in which the signal will be sent, and the characteristics of the recipient of the signal. Evolution of signal is a balance of all three forces.

The primary force involved in the evolution of a signal is the characteristics of the recipient of the signal. This is based on the idea of Receiver Bias Mechanisms. For example, if an animal is deaf then an auditory signal would be pointless. However, a secondary force would be the environment since the animal evolved to best fit into that environment and that would influence its sensory modalities (i.e., how it responds to a signal).

The primary force involved in the evolution of a signal is the characteristics of the sender of the signal. This is based on the idea of Ritualization. For example, if an animal is deaf then it could not be expected to use auditory communication which it cannot hear itself. However, a secondary force would be the environment since the animal evolved to best fit into that environment and that would influence its sensory modalities (i.e., how it sends a signal).

Eusociality is a form of social organization found in insects such as termites, ants, and bees. Why aren’t humans, with their high degree of civilization not also considered to be eusocial by the strictest definition of eusociality?

By the strictest definition of eusociality there is a requirement for irreversibly distinct behavioral groups or castes, including permanently sterile castes. Humans can change their caste so eusociality does not apply to our species.

By the strictest definition of eusociality there is a requirement for one ruling caste and one or more working castes composed of closely related individuals. Humans do not have one ruling caste.

By the strictest definition of eusociality there is a requirement for one ruling caste and one or more working castes composed of closely related individuals. Humans have too great of a genetic diversity to be considered to be closely enough related to meet this criteria.

By the strictest definition of eusociality there is a requirement for the society to share a defensible resource. Humans do not share resources but will compete to exploit the resource to the benefit of one over the others. This goes against the idea of eusociality.

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