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Despite the low concentration in 490 nl, high spectral sensitivities were obtained in just 27 minutes for the liver extract and in just 7 minutes for the brain with a resolution of about 5 ppb.

The limit of detection (LOD) and limit of quantification (LOQ) were estimated by taking the concentration of the extracts at SNR = 3 and 10, respectively, and found to be below 5 μg μl−1 and below 20 μg μl−1, respectively.

The solutions were then centrifuged and only the supernatants were used in the HRμMAS NMR analyses.

The spectral bucketing was performed using MestReNova, and the RSD calculations and processing were carried out using MATLAB.

After sonication for 20 min, 0.45 mL of 0.1 M ascorbic acid solution was added, and the mixture was stirred at room temperature for 30 min.

The Si substrate with pyramidal structures was immersed into 0.075 M Ti(OC4H9)4 in an ethanol solution for 30 s, and the above-mentioned sample was sintered at 450 °C for 30 min to yield layers of TiO2 nanoparticles.

In this work, a controllable Pt-seed-mediated method is used to prepare GO/gold nanoparticle (AuNP) hybrids, and after the covalent binding of folic acid (FA), GO/AuNP/FA hybrids are prepared.

The first insert was placed and aligned at the tip of the rotor using the handling tools and then gently pushed with a blunt-ended fine needle until it was fully inserted.

Since the overall B0 inhomogeneity over the sample region is small (i.e. ∼50 Hz linewidth under non-spinning conditions), the small spinning fluctuation ±17 Hz does not affect the NMR data.

Before the spectral data analyses were conducted, all spectra were processed with a 0.8 Hz line-broadening exponential apodization.

Formation of other products, which comprises the peroxy O–O bonds, is kinetically insignificant.

Graphene oxide (GO) is a kind of graphene derivative, and different from the strong hydrophobicity of graphene, GO possesses carboxylic acid groups at the sheet edges and hydroxyl and epoxy groups on the graphitic plane, so it has a very good water solubility without further functionalization.

There were two samples of HeLa cells: one was cultured and maintained in the FA-contained (FA+) RPMI 1640 media, which was named FR-negative (FR−) HeLa; the other one was cultured and maintained in the FA-depleted (FA−) RPMI 1640 media to induce the upregulation of FR expression, which was named FR-positive (FR+) HeLa.

In Figures 1c,d, S1b, and S4, it can be seen that AuNPs exhibiting the (1 1 1) plane are successfully prepared and loaded on the GO sheets with very small interparticle distances, which is desired for stronger SERS.

It is noteworthy that the actual sample concentration was lower, because the resultant extract solutions contained visible white potassium perchlorate precipitates.