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Naturalist writer Émile Zola believed that a novelist should approach the task of writing like

A scientist conducting an experiment

A politician campaigning for office

A theologian in search of the divine

An industrial worker performing a job in a factory

Darwinism contributed to the growth of secularism by

Attacking the validity of Christianity's moral teachings

Exposing the character of Christian leaders as deeply flawed

Advocating an end to organized religion

Calling into question the reliability of the Bible as an authority in scientific questions

Ludwig Feuerbach argued in The Essence of Christianity that

The "Absolute Spirit" was the source of ultimate truth

A religious world-view was the cornerstone of philosophy

The starting point of philosophy ought to be human beings and the material world

In religion, human beings find their true nature

In the nineteenth century, the Catholic church

Felt threatened by the forces of modernity

Wholeheartedly supported the work of scholars who subjected biblical texts to critical analysis

Failed to address the problems faced by the working class in the new industrial age

Issued a public condemnation of many of its own doctrines in "The Syllabus of Errors"

According to Marx, class conflict is really conflict over

Values and ideology

Ethnic identity

Political principles

Ownership of the means of production

Critics of Marx note that economic explanations of history fall flat in trying to account for the emergence of

Modern nationalism

Contemporary terrorism

Modern imperialism

All of the above

Pierre Joseph Proudhon saw pre-industrial society as

A necessary predecessor to the advanced industrial society of which he dreamed

The only period worse than the industrial era in which he lived

A superior age in which government took its rightful role as provider for the people

A time when workers were free from the exploitation of capitalists

In the opinion of John Stuart Mill, free speech

Should be limited to those who could be trusted to speak the truth

Was necessary for the well-being of both the individual and society

Was desirable within limits

Was a luxury that could not be afforded in the modern world

Thomas Hill Green differed from earlier liberals in that he

Advocated social reform initiated by the state

Believed that protection of private property should be the main concern of government

Believed in the primacy of a free-market economy

Believed that class conflict was the essence of historical change

The nineteenth-century feminist movement has its roots in

Liberalism

Conservatism

Romanticism

Communism

John Stuart Mill argued in favor of

Absolute equality in the voting system

A suspension of state-sponsored labor regulations

Prohibitions against state intervention in matters of education and health

The active participation of all citizens in political life

The work of Elizabeth Gaskell in exposing the plight of the industrial workers is associated with

Naturalism

Realism

Anarchism

Positivism

The positivists believed that

Because society operates according to scientific laws, it can be understood, but not changed

General rules for human society can be derived from the examination of empirical data

Religion should be abolished because it plays no part in satisfying basic human needs

Human behavior is so diverse that it can be understood only through the application of pure reason

The principle of electromagnetic induction was discovered by

Heinrich Hertz

Michael Faraday

Dmitri Mendeleev

John Dalton

In the late nineteenth century, Darwin's ideas were applied to society in order to

Buttress economic individualism and justify the superiority of successful business leaders

Stress that cooperation among living organisms is often crucial to their survival

Criticize war as an "unnatural" struggle for survival among nations

Attack the arguments of racists by showing that in nature all species are equal

Marxism and liberalism shared the belief that

Individuals should be freed from the prejudices and ignorance of the past

Education and self-discipline were the means through which human society progressed

Violence and struggle were the means by which human society progressed

Human nature was essentially bad and unable to free itself from irrationality

According to Marx, capitalism would eventually cease to exist only after

Capitalists increasingly shared their wealth with workers until everything was owned in common

Society became polarized into a small group of wealthy capitalists and a vast and desperate proletariat

Workers obtained political power through democratic processes and abolished the capitalist system

The proletariat became richer, while the bourgeoisie became poorer, with the result that workers would then control the system

Herbert Spencer and other critics of the new liberalism argued that

Individual liberty was unimportant compared with the general welfare of society

The state was the source of all good

State intervention of any kind should be rejected

Capitalism must be replaced with socialism

In The Subjection of Women (1869), John Stuart Mill argued that

Woman's nature justified the social and political inferiority of women

Male dominance of women constituted a blatant abuse of power

The progress of humanity could be assured only through the continued subjugation of women to the duties of household and family

The demand for women's rights would dangerously undermine the ideals of marriage

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